GROUND, NEUTRAL, EARTH, connections explained

Hata kama EARTH na GROUND ni kama kitu kimoja, lakini ni tofauti!
Kwa kingereza ya Merikani wanasema GROUND, alafu kwa Kingereza ya Ulaya(Europe) ni EARTH, so sometimes maana inakuwa confused!

So is why we tried to explain the difference in this rubbish video!


May be whatever is causing You believe MUST do some nonsense to the vehicle, is some minor external problem with the sensors or actuators🤷‍♂️!
So, this ujanja is how to check, verify all the control electronics in the vehicle, are in proper order!
click here

👇
IMMO OFF files
☝☝
click
These files to disable immobilizer system so the ecu accepts any random key used!

HAPA UJANJAtu, hii ndio jinsi ya kugundua, kupata na kupima componets za ECU, kisha suluhisha shida hiyo. inshaAllah👇
Click Here
bonyeza HAPA 

ECU cloning, duplicating or switching memory data’s,
flash memory data, EEPROM memory data, jogolize data,
HAPA UJANJA tu!
click HERE

WinOLS ni programu yenye uchawi wa kuwezesha kubadilisha, kurekebisha data iliyomo kwenye  ECU.
Ina maana unaeza kutoa/kuzima hizo mifumo zenye usumbufu kwenye gari, zikiwemo IMMOBILISER (kufanya immo off). kutoa DPF, EGR, ADblue, kubadili TURBO zenye umeme, yaaani inafanya kazi nyingi kama ECU tuning, uamuzi ni wako tu🤷‍♂️!
Click HERE

Ujanja wa EEPROM work ni muhimu, ukitaka kumbuka niaje,
…bonyeza HAPA UJANJA tu 


 

DPFoff EGRoff FAPoff LAMBDAoff

If You don’t want read our nonsense..
click here
..download whatever data to f*k emissions‘ ujinga!

You know combustion engine (X) used in vehicles😉?How it works, insha’Allah😳!

Engine (X) causes vehicle (Y) to emit nonsense🤷‍♂️!
…to emit nonsense🤪!
If You haven’t been in,
just imagine Yourself in a room with smoke🧘‍♂️!
…thank you for breathing 🤧properly,
bomboclat😜!Niiga, thissmokeis nonsense👌!
Anyway,
while suchsmokeis normal in likes🤪;
Jamaica, Ghana, Kenya ..etc!
It’s ‘bomboclat’ not normal in likes🩺;
Barbados, Rwanda, Botswana ..etc!
Sasa, whoever manufacturers these things had to improvise means of containing the smoke from the engines😎!

By the way,
the engine has so many sensors, actuators, ecu‘s!
If You wish to make 📚 sense of thee👇
don’t CLICK HERE

Back to our smoke story😉!
(S) Air, (Z) fuel, and (M) ignition, are the primary parameters of in a standard combustion Engine😎!So is why each👇,
air control, ignition control, fuel control, each tends to have a dedicated (C4,C3,C2) microController listening to certain sensors and ‘actuating’ certain actuators📌!
For example,
Fuel Control system has actuators, sensors,
for pressure, temperature, density, etc!
Air Control system same sh*t,
for pressure, temperature, density, etc!

If You want waste 💻 time,
click here
Identify, Troubleshoot  ECU circuit boards defects 📌!

Different, many, sensors, actuators on the engine🤔!
The inputs (S, Z, M) are controlled⚓!
As soon as ☝ exhaust valve (I) opens,
smoke is emitted out of the engine!
This is when these Vehicle emission control systems‘ integrated technologies come in with their ‘ujinga’ to minimize or clean that harmful smoke from engines.
Whatever they do with ‘hewachafu‘ & ‘hewasafi‘🤪!
The Vehicle’s emission control system could include,
the Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)!
At (Z) the EGR recirculates a portion of engine exhaust back into the combustion chamber (S)😳!
Plus reducing the amount of smokeemissions,
the EGR indirectly lowers combustion temperatures.
Some sensors & actuators involved!
If any f*ks, or falsely reports f*k to the ECU,
nonsense starts happen to the engine🤷‍♀️!
That’s when EGR delete ‘ujanja’ comes in to ‘kinda’ deactivate, f*k off the EGR system😉!
If You don’t want read more nonsense..
click here
..download whatever data to f*k 💻 the EGR’s ujinga
The Vehicle’s emission control system could include, Catalytic Converter that convertssmoke‘ at (Z) into less harmful sh*t at (M)🧬!
(O2) Oxygen Sensors, (Z) and (M),
monitor the oxygen content in thesmoke’,
to help the ECU (O)maintain an ideal air/fuel ratio (S) for optimal (I) catalytic converter performance🏹!
Some sensors & actuators involved!
If any f*ks, or falsely reports f*k to the ECU,
nonsense starts happen to the engine🤷‍♀️!
That’s when Lambda, O2 sensor delete,
some could falsely label it as ‘CAT off‘  ‘ujanja’,
but comes in tokindadeactivate or tame the Catalytic Converter system😉!
If You don’t want read more nonsense..
click here
..download whatever data to f*k thisCAT system😉!
The Vehicle’s emission control system could include,
Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) that prevents fuel vapors from the fuel tank ( fuel system) from escaping into the atmosphere🤠!
The EVAP does it by trapping them in a charcoal canister and burning them in the engine🤷‍♀️!
If You don’t want read more nonsense..
click here
..download whatever data to f*k  Emissions‘ ujinga🩺!
The Vehicle’s emission control system could include,
Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) that traps, stores, and burns off soot (particulate matter) from engines✌!
Some ‘riddim up’ with Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) using a urea-based solution (AdBlue)🍻!
Some sensors & actuators involved!
If any f*ks, or falsely reports f*k to the ECU,
nonsense starts happen to the engine🤷‍♀️!
That’s when ‘ADblue delete‘ blaa bla ‘DPF delete‘ all come in to ‘kinda’ deactivate the ADblue, DPF 😉!
If You don’t want read more nonsense..
click here
..download data to f*k t ADblue DPF’s ujinga🥂!
The Vehicle’s emission control system could include,
Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) Valve (O),
which redirects (m), crankcase fumes (blowby gases) back, through (S), into the intake manifold🤷‍♀️! The Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) valve is, typically, usually, as in, most are a simple, mechanical, spring-loaded valve, not an electronic component🍖!
PCV nonsense uses engine vacuum to regulate crankcase pressure👌!
For those few vehicles with electronically controlled, PCV systems,
in case of any ‘ujinga’ that needs elimination,
HAPA UJANJA tu👇
click here
…download data to f*k 💻 emissions‘ ‘ujinga’🍻!ONYO📚
Removing restriction of, DPF ADblue EGR O2 blaa bla, can result in better throttle response, higher torque, and slightly better overall power🤷‍♂️.
Obviously without the need for periodic DPF regeneration cycles which injects extra fuel into the exhaust to burn off soot, sii thefuel consumption can improve, ama🤔?
Eliminating the EGR valve kinda prevents carbon buildup in the intake which eventually reduces the risk of clogging, indirectly reducing engine, turbo, or valve failures🧐!
Remember,
improperly configured deletes can increase exhaust temperatures, causing excessive stress on components, lead to cracked manifolds or failure😢!

May be whatever is causing You believe MUST do some ECU programming to the vehicle, is some minor external problem with the sensors or actuators🤷‍♂️!

So, this ujanja is how to check, verify all the control electronics in the vehicle, are in proper order!

click here


Remember, how You read the ECU data will also determine what kinds of data You get, and what kind of tuning, programming to be done!

You get different data, via OBD mode, BOOT mode, BENCH mode!

 

👇

IMMO OFF files

☝☝
click
These files to disable immobilizer system so the ecu accepts any random key used!


Ukumbuke kuwa mwangalifu na vifaa components za circuit board (motherboard), ikiwa kifaa umefugua kime…🤷‍♀️

….kwamba unadhani umeharibu kitu kwenye mother board, hakuna matata, HAPA UJANJAtu, hii ndio jinsi ya kugundua, kupata na kupima componets za ECU, kisha suluhisha shida hiyo. inshaAllah👇
Click Here
bonyeza HAPA

 


If You don’t want read our nonsense..
click here
..download whatever data to f*k emissions‘ ujinga!
Uchawi wa hiizi software, sio kufuta tu code, BUT kutoa kabisa kwa system ya gari, hizo blaa blaa za DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter), EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirulation), LAMBDA ambao ni Oxygen sensor au A/F sensors, ya kwamba kamwe gari kusumbuliwa tena!

Ukitaka kujikumbusha kuhusu DPF bonyeza hapa!
Sii unajuja usumbufu uliopo gari ikianza hizo blaa blaa kukosa nguvu, check engine light kuaka, nk, juu ya hiizi DPF blaa blaa🤔?


So what You need ni uwezo tu wa kusoma Flash data za ECU, kiisha unazipitisha kwenye hiizi software zifanye uchawi, then unarudisha hizo data kwa ECU🤷‍♂️!

Ukitaka kumbuka namna kuchagua mashine itaweza kusaidia, may be upumbavu huu👇 unaeza saidia!

…..na ukumbe memomory tofauti tofauti zinaeza kuwa ndani ya memory moja🤔

Ukumbuke kujiamini, coz kazi ni rahisi👇


As long as una hizo data za DRIVER (microcontroller) au na MCU (microprocessor), au na EEPROM husika, hapa tumeweka taka taka tofauti tofauti za hizi software, maana unaeza kuta moja kuna aina ya gari inakosa, na ingine pia!

So, zikiwa software tofauti tofauti pamoja, huwezikosa unataka👌

Ndiyo, password ni  🍻mbili tu!
📲DOWNLOAD 👇👇
BONYEZA HAPA
👆👆
Ata kwa simu📲, then extract💻! 

Hybrid cars’ Powertrain Systems explained

You know combustion engine (X) used in vehicles😉?How it works, insha’Allah😳!

Whatever magic that happens,
rotates the tyres(T) to move the vehicle👩‍🦽!
Imagine, instead, just put a motor (M) to rotate the tyre🤷‍♀️!There a billion reasons why (then) to just use a motor (M) to rotate the tyre (T) was illusional😉!Infrastructure, the roads being bad!
The technology was “bad”,  it could not offer the range, speed, affordability, maneuverability that the usual internal combustion Engine offered!The motor technology  would be adapted to just compliment the IC-engine🧘‍♂️!
That’s the HYBRID nonsense!
A hybrid drivetrain combines (E) a conventional Internal Combustion Engine (IC-engine) with (M) an electric motor to optimize fuel efficiency and performance🧬!There are different HYBRID configurations,
how motor (M) & IC-engine (E) compliment each other✌!
First🤔try to imagine our Motor(M) and IC-engine(E)🧐!Continue imagining some ‘special something‘ used in hybrid vehicles to manage power distribution between an IC-engine (E) and electric motor/generators (M)😎!
This ‘special something‘ is known as the PSD, which means a power split device (PSD) that enables seamless switching between (M) and (E) or both🏋️‍♂️!
Insha’Allah,
may these words not confuse You🚧

MHEV , HEV, PHEV, REX, EREV, SOZI

MHEV
(Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

A mild hybrid is a type of hybrid vehicle that uses a small electric motor to assist an internal combustion engine (ICE)🦽!
A  small electric generator is installed in place of a traditional starter motor and alternator😉.
This  allows fuel-intensive activities, like rapid acceleration or restarting after a stop, to be supported by power from the generator🏋️‍♂️!
The electric motor is NOT connected anywhere to directly (solely) rotate tyre (T)!
Using this illustration to unconfuse &  confuse You with these other terms,
HEV, PHEV, REX, EREV, SOZI

HEV
(Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

This a full Hybrid!
Both the IC-engine (E) and Motor (M) can, each, solely or together, rotate (T) tyres to drive the vehicle🦽!
The IC-engine could be moving the vehicle alone, while charging the Motor’s HV-battery🤷‍♂️!
As long as the battery has optimum ‘juice’, the motor then solely drives the vehicle👩‍🦽!Just like You would connect batteries,
in series or parallel🚧,Whenever necessary to maximize efficiency and performance,
like during  Heavy acceleration, climbing hills, or high-load conditions,
both the IC-engine & Motor could team up to move the vehicle👩‍🦽!

PHEV
(Plugin Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

This type of hybrid, PHEV, just has a larger battery than standard hybrids (HEV)!
PHEV allow for more of pure electric driving🧐!
Battery (B) is larger, keeps more ‘juice’ to enable motor (M) drive the vehicle for longer🚙!PHEVs must be plugged in to an external power source to maximize efficiency👌! PHEVs automatically manage power, prioritize electric mode until the battery is low, then seamlessly switch to hybrid mode (IC-engine + electric)👩‍🦽!

 EREV
(ExtendedRange Electric Vehicle)

A type of battery-electric vehicle (BEV) that uses a small internal combustion engine solely as an onboard generator to recharge the battery🏋️‍♂️!

The small IC-engine never drives the wheels directly🤷‍♀️!REx
(Range Extender)

Rex” (or REx) is simply the abbreviation for theRange Extender” engine/generator unit itself😜!This EREV is equipped with a,
small, auxiliary IC-engine that acts solely as a generator to recharge the battery while driving👩‍🦽!
Unlike traditional plug-in hybrids, the REx engine never drives the wheels directly; it only powers an electric generator, eliminating range anxiety while keeping the vehicle in electric-only mode🔌!

Batteries (B) & (2B)

Know that there are different Battery technologies, like of  Lithium-ion (Li-ion), Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH), Lead-Acid,  Sodium-ion, solid-state, Sozion, etc😜, all offer varying energy densities and performance levels✌!
How the batteries work & everything, insha’Allah😜!
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!


LOWvoltage battery (2B)
Besides the high-voltage battery (B) to run the  motor (M), a Hybrid vehicle ‘could’ have some lowvoltage battery (2B) that powers lowvoltage electronics, such as lights, infotainment, dashboard displays, and certain sensors📴!
Its most critical function is to..
..activate the highvoltage relay system and control modules..
…that allow the high-voltage battery to start, then  propel the vehicle👩‍🦽!
📌Don’t forget this LOW-voltage battery in a Hybrid📌
🍺At start-up, it initializes the computer systems and closes the relays (main contactors) that connect the high-voltage battery to the drivetrain👌!
🍻It powers accessories, lights, radio, windows, climate control like when the main system is in “Ready” mode😎!
🍺🍻It’s used for Passive Safety/Security, like to operate the locks, alarm, and key fob sensors , etc!
Yes, it supports the management and monitoring of the main high-voltage battery🤷‍♂️!
Use the same ‘ujanja’ about relays!
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!
Be a ‘mjanja’ while troubleshooting these relays🤪!

Remember🥂
📌Unlike conventional cars, the LOWvoltage battery in a hybrid does not need to turn over a starter motor, allowing it to be smaller, although it still serves the same basic activation functions🧘‍♂️!
📌Instead of an alternator, the LOWvoltage battery is charged by the HIGHvoltage battery through a DC-DC converter🔌!
📌The LOWvoltage battery can still go dead if the vehicle sits for a long time, preventing the high-voltage system from waking up, seen🤔?


HIGHvoltage battery (B)
Remember, there’s different Battery technolgy👌!
Whichever technology a hybrid vehicle manufacturer finds as suitable, they…
…they produce several cells (tiny batteries)
These tiny (B0) batteries (cells) are then connected together to form a module (B1), which many modules are also further stacked to form that (B2) stack😜🤪these stacks then form HIGHvoltage (B) battery😁😁!
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!
I’m sure the nonsense of a batteries’ parallel, serial connections makes sense to You🩺!
I pray, insha’Allah, as You interrogate🩺whatever nonsense could be with the battery, you follow up whatever connections are, up to as kernel as the cells’ connections🧷!

Whatever Battery technology used,
it’s exothermic, generates heat🚑!
Through inlets/outlets (O) whatever coolant is circulated into around the battery packs🍻🩺!
As You interrogate🩺 whatever nonsense be with the battery, be ready to deal with temperature sensors!
There could be several Temperature Sensors,
per cell, per module, per stack, or some
general, overall battery temperature sensors!If you’re interested in some nonsense about Temperature sensorsparameters🩺
Don’t Click Here

Obviously, the current, voltage, of the HV battery must be monitored🤷‍♂️!
Just be open-minded, depending on the Battery’s complexity, the monitoring could be per, cell, module, stack, or general Battery🤷‍♂️! If you’re not sure how to test, where to test, what to test, when to test, why to…
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!

Whatever monitored parameters,
current, voltage, temperature, sozi, is reported to the Battery’s central Electronic Control Unit (ECU)💻! There could be some LOCAL electronic control units, per cell, per module, per stack, depending on how complicated the HV-battery could be, insha’Allah☝!The HVBattery’s ECU, shares the, Temperature, Current, Voltage, and other parameters with other control units including the,
DISPLAY and INVERTER / CONVERTER🥂!
📌The HVBattery‘s ECU uses the parameters to manage the battery‘s modules & stacks, switch them ON or OFF whenever necessary🤷‍♂️!
📌That State of Charge (SoC) blaa bla is like the ‘fuel gauge’, it indicates the HVbattery’s current energy level🩺!
📌State of Health (SoH) is the measure of the HVbattery‘s longterm condition and capacity degradation compared to when it was new😉!
SoC is a short-term, always variable measurement (current charge),
whereas,
SoH is a long-term, irreversible metric representing battery aging🦽!

A hybrid battery disconnect plug (or service plug🔌switch) is some safety sh*t used to isolate the highvoltage battery from the rest of the vehicle system, crucial for safe servicing,repairs🩺!
Typically, on most hybrid vehicles, this plug is of orange color,
and usually, located under the rear seat or trunk/boot area🧐!
This sh*t  must be removed and secured, then You drink a 🍺as You wait sh*t to discharge, before working on high-voltage components😜😁!

INVERTER / CONVERTER (Z)

Remember, the electric motor (M) used use to turn tyre (T) is a AC motor, using Alternating Current🔌!
Insha’Allah, for whatever reasons why the ACmotor is preferable for use in Hybrid‘s🤷‍♂️!
For example,
AC motors are more efficient, durable, and capable of generating high torque over a wide speed range compared to DC motors🤷‍♂️!
In other words,
AC motors produce high, immediate torque and manage the variable power demands of driving compared to DC alternatives😎!
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!

Our HVbattery(B) stores DC power!
So the power inverter (Z) converts the DC power to AC power, for the efficient motor (M) operation🔌!
Sasa, before We dismantle (Z) the Inverter / Converter‘s internal components, for it’s reverse function, this is what happens🤪😜 in reverse!
When the driver lifts off the accelerator or presses the brake pedal, the same or other dedicated electric motor (G) reverses function, acting as a generator (G)😲!
This process creates some magnetic drag, which slows the vehicle down🏋️‍♂️!
All the nonsense about motors,
Click Here
…for that setup with sensors, ECU, actuators, etc!
How they work, testing, troubleshooting, etc🩺!

The inverter / converter (Z) is vital for controlling AC motor speeds and converting DC battery power, which requires it to be located somewhere within the highvoltage system loop🧘‍♂️!
Even if🤔,
…many hybrid vehicles  house the inverter (Z) converter under the hood (bonnet) for whatever reasons including efficient cooling and proximity to the motor,
..this thing (Z) can be located in other locations depending on the manufacturer and vehicle design, hakuna matata🤷‍♀️!
These things (Z) inverters don’t all look like the same, they just have  have a standard (same) functionssetup🩺!

Insha’Allah, wherever You find it located🤷‍♂️;
📌Towards the rear of the vehicle, near the high-voltage battery pack🧐!
📌Integrated, ama, mounted directly on top of or next to the transaxle to reduce high-voltage cabling length🔌!
Sh*t could be under the Vehicle as to manage space in the engine bay🤷‍♂️!
In fact, in some specific models or custom applications (like campers), the inverter/converter may be located in the trunk or behind interior panels😜!

Lets categorize this thing (Z) then narrate it section by section, bomboclat😁😁!

INVERTER / CONVETER COOLING‘s(O) Whatever magic the converter / inverter does, involves heat generation, and so is why there entry points (O) to circulate whatever coolant🍻🍺!The Temperature of the inverter (Z) converter has to be monitored, so don’t forget considering 🩺whatever Temperature sensor👌!
If you’re interested in some nonsense about Temperature sensorsparameters🩺
Don’t Click Here

Dismantling this thing (Z) with the upper half of the housing removed and placed beside it🧐!
Expect the circuit board to be multilayered with;
power regulation electronics, MG microprocessors, a boost converter microprocessor, integrated circuits (ICs) for MG speed/position detection, hardware for vehicle communication, voltage Temperature current measurements, safety interlock devices, and so much other nonsense😁😜!
There could be  hardware to prevent faults and overlapping, as well as voltage, current, and temperature sensing circuitry for each insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)😲!
Expect to deal 🩺with controller and driver circuitry for DCDC converters and inverters😎!You will see such DC, motor, and generator connection terminals🤷‍♀️!
There is that compartment containing compressor inverter and 12V DC-DC converter👌!
Some sh*t be containing inductor, capacitors, and dc-dc converter😁😜!

DON’T BE SCARED😜😁🤪!

While troubleshooting these circuit boards,
use the similar ‘ujanja’ as we used for ECU’s🤷‍♀️!
CLICK HERE 

HAPA UJANJA tu☝!


Don’t forget about the whatever capacitors that attenuate voltage transients and whatever surges associated with the build-up and collapse of the energy stored in the the inductors!
For example, the large, heavy capacitor is crucial for stabilizing electrical power, filtering noise, and managing high-demand loads📚!
In fact, it is a temporary energy reservoir to bridge the gap between DC sources (solar/battery) and AC output🤷‍♂️!
There are those other capacitors, like in that nonsense whereby as the duty cycle is varied, the output voltage of the inductor also varies stupidly🤪😜😁!
Sasa, due to these inherent voltage ripples and obviously (but  potentially) High Voltages produced by the collapsing inductor field🧐!
Naam, You see how these capacitors serve to stabilize the battery voltage and DClink voltage as well as protect (Z) devices from potential over-voltage conditions🤷‍♂️!
There those Boost converter modules😲!

DON’T BE SCARED😜😁🤪!

While troubleshooting these circuit boards,
use the similar ‘ujanja’ as we used for ECU’s🤷‍♀️!
CLICK HERE 

HAPA UJANJA tu☝

Kindly, don’t just cram these setups😜🤪😁!
These things vary with different hybrid vehicles, this 5021tips nonsense isjust giving You some perspective of ‘wah gwaan’, seen🤔? 😜🤪😁😜 Let me even stop here,
NOT to confuse You further😜😁!
There is this book here about if you’re interested in going through all the deep deep details of about the hybrid converters / inverters🤷‍♀️!
CLICK HERE 
….to download the book, insha’Allah✌

Otherwise such writings could also be youseful, jazaka’Allah✌
Hybrid Vehicle Powertrain Systems combine conventional powertrain components, an internal combustion engine and transmission, with new electric components, electric motor, power electronics and high voltage energy storage, such as a battery.
So this from TOYOTA engineer is to help you know how to perform the necessary maintenance, service, and repair procedures on hybrid cars!

HAPA UJANJA tu👌

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [578.79 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [876.77 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [317.16 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [795.14 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [679.71 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [344.10 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [31.60 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [273.54 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [408.52 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [690.86 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [713.37 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [400.79 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [189.67 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [209.45 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [162.60 KB]

Loader Loading...
EAD Logo Taking too long?

Reload Reload document
| Open Open in new tab

Download kwa simu/laptop [83.24 KB]


ufafanuzi wa MANENO fulani ya kitaalam

Hapa tunajaribu kufafananua au kuelezeana maana ya maneno fulani ya kitaaalam👌, ambao tunatumia katika maisha yetu ya kila siku, bila kujua maana🤔!
So, HAPA UJANJA tu👨‍🎓